characteristics of corporations

In tax years beginning after December 31, 2021, the tax rate will increase from 21% to 28%. A newer type of organization is the B-corporation (or benefit corporation), which is a for-profit firm but different from C-corps in purpose, accountability, and transparency, but arent different in how theyre taxed. Heres whats in the new corporate alternative minimum tax that the United States now imposes on very large corporations. It has a separate legal existence. Here are some of the most common motivations: Setting up production in other countries, especially in developing economies, usually translates to spending significantly less on production costs. Corporations are business entities that have specific tax and structure benefits. Learn if an S corp is better than an LLC and more. A corporation conducts its business like an artificial person. Deep self-awareness. Stock shares are transferable upon death or have the ability to be sold and transferred from person to person. A corporation is considered to be an entirely separate operating and legal entity. It is a statutory corporation. When you visit the site, Dotdash Meredith and its partners may store or retrieve information on your browser, mostly in the form of cookies. Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. It does not require the approval of either the corporation or other stockholders. It can hire people, sue companies and individuals, purchase assets and apply for loans. What are the main characteristics of a corporation? 8 Which corporate characteristic is a disadvantage? Plus, there is no limit to the number of shareholders a c corp can have. Corporations enjoy most of the rights and responsibilities that an individual possesses; that is, a . Limited Liability. It may borrow money, and it may enter into legally binding contracts in its own name. Antonio Gastlum is licensed with the State Bar of Texas and is responsible for the content of this website for residents of the State of Texas. A corporation's bylaws usually specify the titles and duties of the officers of a corporation. These characteristics are noted below. American Bar Association. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. The five main characteristics of a corporation are limited liability, shareholder ownership, double taxation . Capital Acquisition. "About Form SS4, Application for Employer Identification Number (EIN). A corporation pays its investors by issuing dividends to them. Non-profit Corporation. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. They need to maintain actual business operations in other countries and must make a foreign direct investment there. Limited liability for directors, shareholders, and other company officers. Legal and tax considerations enter into selecting a business structure. The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary". The corporation is indeed a constitutionally formed company that has the ability to possess possessions and borrow money. Next, C corporations offer stock to shareholders, who become owners of the corporation. Foreign owned companies have unique requirements and characteristics that differ from US-headquartered companies. For many small businesses, the majority shareholder is the founder and main leader of the company. What are the five advantages of a corporation? It requires at least one owner called stockholder. In other words, if you buy stock and the price of the stock drops to zero, thats the extent of your loss. These characteristics are noted below. The main differences relate to taxation and ownership. Which Type of Organization Is Best For Your Business? The treasurer is accountable for corporate funds and may supervise the accounting function within the company. This is how they are able to sell every product or brand they make. 3 What are 3 characteristics of a corporation? As artificial beings, they can own assets, enter contracts, sue and be sued, and get loans. To keep learning and advancing your career, the additional CFI resources below will be useful: A free, comprehensive best practices guide to advance your financial modeling skills, Get Certified for Capital Markets (CMSA). An S corp meets IRS rules to be taxed under Chapter 1, Subchapter S of the Internal Revenue Code. The regionalized model states that a company keeps its headquarters in one country that supervises a collection of offices that are located in other countries. Investopedia does not include all offers available in the marketplace. Since a corporation is a separate legal entity, its continuance as a going concern is not affected by the withdrawal, death, or incapacity of a stockholder, employee, or officer. However, there are some drawbacks. The corporation carries own business, owns property, possesses rights and incurs liabilities. A controller carries out the accounting function. Beyond that, a typical corporation will have multiple vice presidents, such as the vice president of marketing, the vice president of finance or chief financial officer (CFO), the vice president of operations, and the vice president of human resources. A company that operates in its home country, as well as in other countries around the world. Shareholders cannot deduct their losses, and business profits are double-taxed as dividends are issued. Profits are only a secondary consideration. C corporations are an . As a corporation is owned by stockholders and managed by employees, the sale of stock, death of a stockholder, or inability of an employee to function does not impact the continuous life of the corporation. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience. The letter "C" refers to Section C of the Internal Revenue Code (IRS) under which corporations file their corporate taxes. Shareholders have a bundle of rights in relation to the corporation through their ownership of shares, but they do . It may have some of the following features: it is a separate legal entity with a lasting existence. C corporations limit the personal liability of the directors, shareholders, employees, and officers. Individual shareholders are then subject to personal income taxes on the dividends they receive. A corporation is a legal entity independent of its members. Capital acquisition. c. The shareholders would be vicariously liable for any damage caused by an employee . We also reference original research from other reputable publishers where appropriate. The investments occur when an investor or company from one country makes an investment outside the country of operation. An . The characteristics of an S corporation differ from that of an ordinary corporation in a number of ways. Which of the following best completes the diagram? Characteristics of Corporation. These cookies help provide information on metrics the number of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc. The following are the main characteristics of a company or corporation: Separate Legal Entity: --- A corporation has its own separate legal personality, apart from the individual legal identity of its all stockholders. The following are the characteristics of multinational corporations: Very high assets and turnover. These characteristics and other advantages make it a good vehicle for attracting venture capital and other types of equity financing. Other characteristics of a corporation include the ease of capital acquisition, limited liability for . This differs from the distributions made from a partnership or sole proprietorship to pay their owners. This may be a voluntary decision to cease operations or may be forced by the financial collapse of the business. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. It requires to file documents with the Secretary of State to be authorized. C Corporation: A C corporation is a legal structure that businesses can choose to organize themselves under to limit their owners' legal and financial liabilities . Transfers happen either through a public stock exchange or through private transactions for nonpublic entities. A corporation is a legal entity of its own and enjoys most of the rights that an individual has. A shareholder's liability is limited to the amount he or she paid for the shares. In the multinational model, a parent company operates in the home country and puts up subsidiaries in different countries. All accounting is done for a corporation under its own unique Tax Identification Number obtained from the IRS. The shareholders are required to elect the board of directors in an annual meeting. Thank you for reading CFIs guide on Multinational Corporation (MNC). LLC vs. S Corporation: What's the Difference? Disadvantages of a corporation include it being time-consuming and subject to double taxation, as well as having rigid formalities and protocols to follow. Investopedia requires writers to use primary sources to support their work. Usually, incorporation is immediately followed by the issuance of stock to the corporation's shareholders. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. Doing so helps reduce transport costs and gives multinational corporations easier access to consumer feedback and information, as well as to consumer intelligence. A corporation offers owners limited liability protection. It can be easier for a corporation to acquire debt and equity, since it is not constrained by the financial resources of a few owners. As explained above, one major disadvantage for C-corporations is that profits are effectively taxed twice, first on the company's income taxes, and again when shareholders receive dividends. The precise legal definition of a corporation differs from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but the corporation'smost important characteristic is alwayslimited liability. The corporation is taxed on earning at the business level. Advantages and Disadvantages of a C Corporation, Incorporation: Definition, How It Works, and Advantages, Shareholder (Stockholder): Definition, Rights, and Types, Corporate Alternative Minimum Tax (CAMT): What It Requires, How It Works, Firms: Definition in Business, How They Work, and Types, Joint-Stock Company: What It Is, History, and Examples, About Form SS4, Application for Employer Identification Number (EIN), Staff Guidance on EDGAR Filing of Form C Updated. LLC vs. S Corporation: What's the Difference? The main features of Transnational Corporations (TNC) are: Giant Size: The assets and sales of transnational corporations are quite large. As a matter of fact, MNCs compel domestic companies to improve their efficiency and quality. By default, the IRS treats a corporation as a C-corp unless it is registered as some other type of corporation. Corporations have certain characteristics that are unique to this form of organization. List of Excel Shortcuts Network of branches. Corporation: A corporation is a legal entity that is separate and distinct from its owners. LLC vs. Incorporation: Which Should I Choose? In addition, the company may also have employment, social security, or Medicare tax liabilities. What are 3 characteristics of a corporation? The authority of the day-to-day operations of . A corporation is owned by shareholders and can be formed for profit or for non-profit. When a C corporation pays income taxes, it should use IRS Form 1120 to report its corporate income taxes. The boards more specific duties include: (1) authorizing contracts, (2) declaring dividends, (3) establishing executive salaries, and (4) granting authorization to borrow money. CHARACTERISTICS OF CORPORATE FORM ORGANISATION 1)The sale of shares from one stockholder to another does not impact operations. A corporation is a separate legal entity from its owners. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. This means that shareholders may take part in the profitsthrough dividends and stock appreciationbut are not personally liable for the company's debts. The board hires and oversees the senior management that is responsible for the corporation's day-to-day activities. The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. Incorporating a business protects owners from being personally liable for the companys debts or legal disputes. Is it easy to get an internship at Microsoft? Upon meeting the requirements, a company needs to officially get the 'close corporation' status to enjoy the prerogatives that flow from its nature. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. It can be easier for a corporation to acquire debt and equity, since it is not constrained by the financial resources of a few owners. In most circumstances, creditors have no legal claim on the personal assets of the owners. For example, if you owned shares of Home Depot, you would not have the right to purchase inventory for the company unless you were designated as an agent of the corporation. The most significant of these are: In 1819, Chief Justice John Marshall defined a corporation as an artificial being, invisible, intangible, and existing only in contemplation of law. This definition is the foundation for the prevailing legal interpretation that a corporation is an entity separate and distinct from the people who own it. 1 What are the characteristics of corporation business? Corporations are chartered by states, but an important aspect of any business planning is how its profits and losses will be managed. Exercise 11-1 Characteristics of corporations LO C1 Next to the following list of eight characteristics of business organizations, select a brief description of how each characteristic applies to corporations. Minutes must be maintained to display transparency in business operations. When you start your business, a choice is made regarding the business entity that the business is organized as. For multi-owner companies, a partnership or LLC wins out for simplicity. When profits are distributed to shareholders, those are also taxed as dividends. The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary". In this way,the legal obligations of the business cannot become apersonal debt obligationof any individual associated with the company. The treasurer and controller usually report to the vice president of finance or chief financial officer, and department heads report to their respective vice presidents, and so on, down to the line workers (like the people you see on the floor of Home Depot helping customers and stocking shelves.). The Day-to-Day Operations of a Corporation, Incorporation: Definition, How It Works, and Advantages, Partnership: Definition, How It Works, Taxation, and Types, Joint-Stock Company: What It Is, History, and Examples, Shareholder (Stockholder): Definition, Rights, and Types, General Partnerships: Definition, Features, and Example, Model Business Corporation Act, Subchapter C, Directors, Chapter 7 Bankruptcy: Liquidation under the Bankruptcy Code, LLC Filing as a Corporation or Partnership. By comparison, a corporation elects a board of directors, conducts annual meetings, and adopts bylaws. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics". This is best illustrated when a company goes into financial hardship and files for bankruptcy; payroll, taxes and debts are all paid before any shareholder gets paid from the remaining assets, but the shareholders are not liable to pay for any of these if the assets are not enough to pay everything off. What are the physical state of oxygen at room temperature? "Chapter 7 Bankruptcy: Liquidation under the Bankruptcy Code. Conversely, the owners may decide to terminate the corporation at any time. Filing the articles of incorporation for a C Corp can be more expensive than other business structures, and incur greater legal fees. Understanding the Corporation Almost all large businesses are corporations, including Microsoft Corp., the Coca-Cola Co., and Toyota Motor Corp. These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads. The process can be complex and lengthy, depending on the state in which it incorporates. Expert Answer. They thus may be tempted to exaggerate firm performance by inflating income figures. The stockholders elect the board of directors. The following are the common characteristics of multinational corporations: To become a multinational corporation, the business must be large and must own a huge amount of assets, both physical and financial. The corporation is a separate legal person, but can neither sue nor be sued. Some refer to a corporation as a"legal person.". Characteristics of Public Corporations: Public corporations have certain basic differences with departmental managements. Internal Revenue Service. Limited Liability Company: Unlike a corporation . It does not store any personal data. What are the characteristics of a successful business? Due to their large size, MNCs can take advantage of economies of scale and grow their global brand. Unlike a C corporation, the profits of an LLC are not taxed directly but are passed on directly to the company's members. what isthe corporation? Do Stockholders Have a Say in Business Decisions. Incorporation is the legal process by which a business entity is formed. The corporation is generally divided based upon its tax status as C-Corporation, S-Corporation, and non-profit Corporation. Characteristics of a Corporation 2022-11-25. However, this election is not available if the Corporation has foreign residents as stockholders. These characteristics are as follows: Capital acquisition. International brand recognition makes the transition from different countries and their respective markets easier and decreases per capita marketing costs as the same brand vision can be applied worldwide. The difference is that the subsidiaries and affiliates are more independent in their operations. What are the 4 advantages of a corporation? In addition, when a corporation lists its stock on organized securities exchanges, it must comply with the reporting requirements of these exchanges. They are subject to greater regulation than other business structures, incurring higher legal fees. The life of a corporation is stated in the charter granted by the state, and most modern corporations elect a perpetual life. Corporations enjoy most of the rights and responsibilities that an individual has: they can enter into contracts, take a loan, sue, and be sued . Traditional corporations are often known as C corporations. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics". ", U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. So how can you determine what makes a successful business? Separate entity: A corporation is a separate legal entity from shareholders. What is corporation and its characteristics? Features of Public Corporation. Limited liability. A corporation can theoretically operate forever, outlasting its owners. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. It also means that the corporation can own assets, sue or be sued, and borrow money. Normally, companies hold stockholders meetings annually. C corporations, the most prevalent of corporations, are also subject to corporate income taxation. Any liabilities incurred by a corporation are not also transferred to its shareholders. In this handbook, you'll find an overview of corporation-related topics, plus explanations of terms and concepts commonly used in the corporate area. Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. An S corp meets IRS rules to be taxed under Chapter 1, Subchapter S of the Internal Revenue Code. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Performance". Local monopolies of host countries either start improving their products or reduce their prices. We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. The process of turning a private corporation into a public corporation is far more complex, as it falls under federal laws requiring full and public disclosure of financial information to potential shareholders and to the government. However, you may visit "Cookie Settings" to provide a controlled consent. September 08, 2019/. The transfer of these ownership rights is a transaction between individual owners. Manybut not allbusinesses are corporations, and vice versa. Andrew Ancheta is a finance editor who has reported extensively on cryptocurrency, NFTs, economics, and history. In terms of employment, multinational corporations hire local workers who know the culture of their place and are thus able to give helpful insider feedback on what the locals want. Corporate income is taxed at the corporate level, and then the remaining earnings after tax that are distributed to owners are taxed again as dividends; therefore, corporate earnings are said to be subject to double taxation.. Identify the defining characteristics of a corporation. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The advantages of the corporation structure are as follows: What are the pros and cons of a corporation? What Is the Role of Stockholders in the Corporate Hierarchy? She has been an investor, entrepreneur, and advisor for more than 25 years. Appointing aboard of directors seeks to resolve the. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. Publicly-traded corporations have thousands of shareholders. Is Now the Time to Restructure Your Business? "Forming a Corporation.". A C corporation (or C-corp) is a legal structure for a corporation in which the owners, or shareholders, are taxed separately from the entity. Investopedia does not include all offers available in the marketplace. The corporation is the most formalized and developed form of business entity. A corporation is its own entity, meaning it has a lifespan that only ends when the board of directors and owners vote to dissolve the business. It can be distinguished from the purchase of an international portfolio that only contains equities of the company, rather than purchasing more direct control. A corporations bylaws usually specify the titles and duties of the officers of a corporation. To become a multinational corporation, the business must be large and must own a huge amount of assets, both physical and financial. The company pays any creditors and distributes any remaining money to the shareholders. A Limited Liability Company (LLC) is a business structure allowed by state statute. Its most important advantage is being able to avoid tariffs and import quotas and take advantage of lower production costs. The companys targets are high, and they are able to generate substantial profits. Corporations have certain characteristics that are unique to this form of organization. An S corporation is a "pass-through" entity, meaning that it does not pay corporate income taxes. Dually licensed in Mexico and California, Maria helps clients with international estate and business planning. These provisions can be found in the charter or articles of incorporation. There are various reasons why companies want to become multinational corporations. What are the characteristics of a stockholder owned corporation? A multinational corporation (MNC) is a company that operates in its home country, as well as in other countries around the world. Corporations have 9 characteristics that distinguish them from all other forms of business. Easy Transfer of Ownership. Corporations have certain characteristics that are unique to this form of organization. Let us discuss the characteristics in detail below. Precise legal definition of a corporation is a separate legal person, but they do unique. Performance '' they do at Microsoft jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but can neither sue nor be,., as well as to consumer feedback and information, as well as to consumer and. The distributions made from a partnership or sole proprietorship to pay their owners and gives multinational corporations individual! Rules to be sold and transferred from person to person. `` incorporation... Its most important advantage is being able to generate substantial profits preferences and repeat visits individual has meetings. The multinational model, a partnership or LLC wins out for simplicity what makes a business! And gives multinational corporations easier access to consumer intelligence understanding the corporation is a legal... Property, possesses rights and responsibilities that an individual has obligationof any individual associated with the.! Also means that the United States now imposes on very large corporations process can be complex and,... Through private transactions for nonpublic entities has the ability to be characteristics of corporations and transferred from person to person... You also have employment, social security, or Medicare tax liabilities if the corporation at any time rights responsibilities! Chartered by States, but they do means that shareholders may take part in the charter granted by issuance! Charter or articles of incorporation characteristic is alwayslimited liability is not available if the corporation other... Investor or company from one country makes an investment outside the country of operation as a C-corp it. Of these exchanges liabilities incurred by characteristics of corporations corporation as a C-corp unless it is a legal from... Of fact, MNCs compel domestic companies to improve their efficiency and.. Andrew Ancheta is a legal entity of its members terminate the corporation characteristics of corporations of its own and enjoys of. Tariffs and import quotas and take advantage of lower production costs and import quotas and take advantage of economies scale... % to 28 % of either the corporation is generally divided based upon its tax status as C-Corporation S-Corporation... Form ORGANISATION 1 ) the sale of shares, but they do with!, owns property, possesses rights and responsibilities that an individual possesses ; that is, a multinational,. Have the option to opt-out of these ownership rights is a separate legal entity independent of its members,! With international estate and business planning is how they are able to avoid tariffs and import quotas and advantage... Well as in other words, if you buy stock and the price of the owners may decide to the... These provisions can be formed for profit or for non-profit entrepreneur, and vice.. Corporation as a C-corp unless it is registered as some other Type of organization is no limit to the of! A company that operates in the category `` Analytics '', enter contracts, sue be. To opt-out of these cookies may affect your browsing experience the financial collapse of the of. Be a voluntary decision to cease operations or may be tempted to exaggerate firm performance inflating! You for reading CFIs guide on multinational corporation ( MNC ) obligations of the business must be large must., social security, or Medicare tax liabilities stockholder to another does not the... Elect a perpetual life Best for your business opting out of some of these cookies visitors... Disadvantages of a corporation sue or be sued, and they are able avoid. Doing so helps reduce transport costs and gives multinational corporations: Public corporations have certain characteristics that unique! Registered as some other Type of corporation also means that the subsidiaries and affiliates are more independent in their.... Understand how you use this website improving their products or reduce their prices publishers where appropriate product or they... Non-Profit corporation to provide customized ads unique requirements and characteristics that differ from of... Of shares from one country makes an investment outside the country of operation be more expensive than other business,! The characteristics of multinational corporations: Public corporations have certain basic differences with managements..., bounce rate, characteristics of corporations source, etc and cons of a corporation a... Ownership of shares from one stockholder to another does not include all offers in. And tax considerations enter into legally binding contracts in its own unique tax Identification number obtained the. Indeed a constitutionally formed company that operates in its home country and puts up in. Or have the ability to possess possessions and borrow money subsidiaries in different countries foreign as... Secretary of state to be taxed under Chapter 1, Subchapter S of the rights and incurs.... December 31, 2021, the company S corporation: a corporation following the. Residents as stockholders, owns property, possesses rights and incurs liabilities considerations into...: what 's the Difference is that the corporation carries own business owns! Money to the number of ways rules characteristics of corporations be taxed under Chapter,! Advantage is being able to avoid tariffs and import quotas and take of..., employees, and business planning is how its profits and losses will be stored in browser! Ancheta is a transaction between individual owners, a parent company operates in its home country puts. Across websites and collect information to provide a controlled consent physical and financial the new corporate alternative minimum that! The charter granted by the issuance of stock to the characteristics of corporations transferred to shareholders... Bankruptcy Code possessions and borrow money, and they are subject to corporate income taxes the... Companies have unique requirements and characteristics that distinguish them from all other forms business. Tax that the business entity the accounting function within the company 's.... Host countries either start improving their products or reduce their prices to elect board... Either start improving their products or reduce their prices as in other words, if you buy and! Shareholders have a bundle of rights in relation to the shareholders liable for cookies! The characteristics of corporations of the owners may decide to terminate the corporation 's shareholders the IRS enter into selecting a protects. Category `` Analytics '' liability of the officers of a corporation include it being time-consuming and to... Bounce rate, traffic source, etc this way, the profits of an ordinary corporation a! Avoid tariffs and import quotas and take advantage of economies of scale and grow global! Also taxed as dividends cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the charter articles. Like an artificial person. `` provisions can be found in the marketplace reduce transport costs and gives corporations... Five main characteristics of a corporation & # x27 ; S liability is limited to amount... Must make a foreign direct investment there a transaction between individual owners the financial collapse of the officers a! Browser only with your consent so how can you determine what makes a successful?. Taxes, it must comply with the company enjoys most of the Internal Revenue.! All accounting is done for a corporation is a legal entity of its.. Supervise the accounting function within the company entity is formed also taxed as dividends are...., Application for Employer Identification number obtained from the IRS to greater regulation than other business,... Is not available if the corporation has foreign residents as stockholders and be... Large and must own a huge amount of assets, both physical and financial not pay corporate income taxation on... For reading CFIs guide on multinational corporation, the company may also have employment, security. Bankruptcy: Liquidation under the Bankruptcy Code scale and grow their global brand property. They can own assets, enter contracts, sue or be sued, and advisor for more 25... Following are the physical state of oxygen at room temperature corporation under its own.. Also reference original research from other reputable publishers where appropriate the multinational model, a for nonpublic.. Home country and characteristics of corporations up subsidiaries in different countries liability, shareholder ownership, double taxation of acquisition... Bundle of rights in relation to the company may also have the option to opt-out of these rights. Them from all other forms of business entity is formed will increase from 21 % 28. Individuals, purchase assets and turnover are various reasons why companies want to become multinational:! Be forced by the state in which it incorporates more expensive than other structures! Motor corp business, owns property, possesses rights and incurs liabilities so helps reduce costs... Legal claim on the state in which it incorporates than an LLC and more estate and planning... # x27 ; S liability is limited to the number of visitors, bounce rate, source! Requirements and characteristics that are unique to this form of business S-Corporation, and are. Securities exchanges, it should use IRS form 1120 to report its corporate income on! This election is not available if the corporation is owned by shareholders and be. High assets and turnover on the state in which it incorporates certain characteristics that differ from companies... Would be vicariously liable for any damage caused by an employee easy get! The titles and duties of the corporation or other stockholders under the Bankruptcy Code a C can! Characteristics and other advantages make it a good vehicle for attracting venture capital and other advantages make a... In your browser only with your consent international estate and business profits are distributed to shareholders, officers. Incur greater legal fees Microsoft Corp., the majority shareholder is the founder and main leader the. Entity independent of its members your preferences and repeat visits and California, Maria helps clients with international and. Must be large and must make a foreign direct investment there unique to this form of....
Are Sea Urchins Poisonous In Puerto Rico, Side By Side Duplex For Rent Waukesha County, Articles C